Biodiversity Assessment of the Tano River Basin: A Comprehensive Inventory of Animal Species and Conservation Status

I. Executive Summary

The Tano River Basin, a transboundary ecological system shared by Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire, represents a region of profound ecological and economic importance. Its diverse terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, encompassing semi-deciduous and dry dense forests, extensive farmlands, and a complex network of rivers and lagoons, provide critical services such as water supply, food resources, and climate regulation, sustaining millions of people.  

This assessment reveals a rich and varied animal biodiversity within the basin, characterized by a significant presence of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates. Notable faunal elements include a substantial population of African forest elephants. Critically endangered species, such as Miss Waldron’s Red Colobus and the West African slender-snouted crocodile, underscore the basin’s unique but imperiled biological heritage. Numerous other species are categorized as Endangered, Vulnerable, or Near Threatened across various taxonomic groups. The presence of endemic fish species further highlights the distinctive ecological value of the basin’s freshwater systems.  

Despite its ecological richness, the Tano River Basin’s biodiversity faces escalating threats primarily driven by anthropogenic activities. Extensive logging, widespread cocoa farming (including within protected forest reserves), and pervasive illegal gold mining operations contribute significantly to deforestation, habitat degradation, and fragmentation. These activities also result in severe water pollution from plastic waste and heavy metal contamination, impacting aquatic life and posing health risks to human communities. The proliferation of invasive alien species, such as water hyacinth, further exacerbates ecological pressures on aquatic environments. Recognizing these challenges, conservation initiatives, particularly for species like the West African slender-snouted crocodile, involve crucial community engagement and habitat rehabilitation efforts. The findings herein emphasize the urgent need for integrated conservation strategies that address both ecological and socio-economic dimensions to safeguard the basin’s irreplaceable natural capital.  

II. Introduction

Geographical and Ecological Profile of the Tano River Basin

The Tano River Basin, a vital component of West Africa’s natural landscape, is a transboundary hydrological system primarily situated within Ghana and extending into Côte d’Ivoire. It forms one of Ghana’s four principal southwestern river systems, alongside the Ankobra, Bia, and Pra basins. Geographically, the basin spans approximately 16,060 square kilometers, with the majority of its area lying within Ghana and a smaller portion (around 7.4% or 1,185 km²) extending into Côte d’Ivoire.  

The basin’s topography is diverse, ranging from highlands in its upstream areas, with elevations reaching approximately 540 meters above sea level, to flatter southern regions that average between 0 and 15 meters above sea level. This varied elevation contributes to the basin’s rich array of ecosystems. The Tano River, the basin’s main watercourse, flows for approximately 400 kilometers, originating from the Boyem Mountain Ranges near Techiman in Ghana and ultimately discharging into the Ehy/Tano/Aby Lagoon complex, which straddles the international border. This extensive drainage network is further enhanced by nine major tributaries, creating an interconnected system crucial for local ecosystems, agriculture, and community livelihoods.  

Terrestrial ecosystems within the Tano Basin are characterized by semi-deciduous dense forests, dry dense forests, clear forests, farmlands, and degraded lands. Several forest reserves, including Boin Tano, Tano Suraw, Tano Suhien, and Disue, have been established to protect critical river headwaters, underscoring the importance of these forested areas for water resource management. The region experiences a bi-modal rainfall pattern, with an average annual rainfall of about 1390 mm, and maintains a mean temperature of approximately 25.9°C and relative humidity between 75% and 85% throughout the year.  

The health and integrity of the Tano River Basin’s terrestrial forest ecosystems are fundamental to maintaining the quality and biodiversity of its aquatic systems. Forests play a crucial role in regulating freshwater supply by supporting natural flow, filtration, and water quality. Consequently, human activities such as logging, extensive cocoa farming, and illegal gold mining, which lead to deforestation and land degradation, directly translate into compromised water quality and habitat loss in the aquatic environments. This direct causal relationship underscores that land-use practices upstream have profound implications for aquatic life downstream, necessitating an integrated approach to land and water management to ensure the basin’s ecological sustainability.  

Importance of the Basin’s Ecosystems for Regional Biodiversity

The Tano River Basin is recognized as an ecologically and economically vital region, providing essential services such as water supply, biodiversity conservation, and climate regulation that support millions of people. Its rich biodiversity includes a significant population of African forest elephants, an iconic species whose presence highlights the basin’s importance for large mammal conservation.  

Within the basin, specific protected areas serve as critical strongholds for wildlife. For instance, the Boin Tano Forest Reserve has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International, signifying its role in supporting substantial populations of numerous bird species. The broader region, particularly the Upper Guinea zone where the Tano Basin is located, is known for its high concentration of endemic species, especially within its coastal drainages and the river basins of western Ghana and eastern Côte d’Ivoire. This concentration of unique species further emphasizes the Tano Basin’s irreplaceable value in regional and global biodiversity conservation.  

Purpose and Scope of the Report

This report aims to provide a comprehensive and detailed inventory of animal species residing within the Tano River Basin. The primary objective is to compile an enriched and extensive list of animals, systematically categorized by their conservation status (critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, near threatened), endemicity, and commonality. The report will cover major taxonomic classes including mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and invertebrates, drawing from available scientific literature and reports. By presenting this categorized data, the report seeks to inform conservation strategies, guide policy development, and establish a robust baseline for future ecological studies within this critical West African ecosystem.

III. Mammalian Fauna

Overview of Mammal Diversity in the Tano River Basin

The Tano River Basin supports a diverse mammalian fauna, ranging from large, charismatic species to a multitude of smaller bats, rodents, and primates. The presence of a significant population of African forest elephants attests to the basin’s capacity to sustain large terrestrial mammals. Detailed surveys, particularly within protected areas like the Boin Tano Forest Reserve, have documented a substantial number of mammalian species, providing valuable insights into the region’s biodiversity. These areas often function as critical biodiversity strongholds, serving as refugia for threatened species and providing essential baseline data for conservation management.  

Table 1: Mammal Species List (Class: Mammalia)

This table provides a comprehensive list of mammalian species identified within or strongly associated with the Tano River Basin and its broader ecological context in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire, categorized by their IUCN conservation status.

Species (Common Name)	Class	Order	Family	Genus	IUCN Status	Notes
Miss Waldron’s Red Colobus	Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecidae	Piliocolobus	Critically Endangered (CR)	Possible remaining members in forest by Tano River and Ehy Lagoon. One of the world’s most threatened primates.
Chimpanzee	Mammalia	Primates	Hominidae	Pan	Endangered (EN)	West African chimpanzee found in Ankasa Resource Reserve.
Baer’s Hylomyscus	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Hylomyscus	Endangered (EN)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Diana monkey	Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecidae	Cercopithecus	Endangered (EN)	Endemic to Ankasa Resource Reserve.
Red colobus	Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecus	Procolobus	Endangered (EN)	Listed as Procolobus badius.
African bush elephant	Mammalia	Proboscidea	Elephantidae	Loxodonta	Vulnerable (VU)	Significant population in Tano Basin. African forest elephants have seen population plummet.
Ursine colobus	Mammalia	Primates	Colobinae	Colobus	Vulnerable (VU)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Pied bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Vespertilionidae	Glauconycteris	Vulnerable (VU)	Listed as Glauconycteris superba.
Yellow-backed duiker	Mammalia	Artiodactyla	Bovidae	Cephalophus	Vulnerable (VU)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve and Kakum National Park.
African golden cat	Mammalia	Carnivora	Felidae	Profelis	Near Threatened (NT)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
African white-bellied pangolin	Mammalia	Pholidota	Manidae	Manis	Near Threatened (NT)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Pangolins also mentioned in Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire.
Bongo	Mammalia	Artiodactyla	Bovidae	Tragelaphus	Near Threatened (NT)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Also in Comoé National Park, Côte d’Ivoire and Ankasa Resource Reserve.
Sooty mangabey	Mammalia	Primates	Cercocebus	Cercocebus	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Cercocebus atys. White-naped Sooty Mangabey mentioned in Ankasa Resource Reserve.
Olive colobus	Mammalia	Primates	Procolobus	Procolobus	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Procolobus verus. Found in Comoé National Park, Côte d’Ivoire and Ankasa Resource Reserve.
Schreber’s yellow bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Vespertilionidae	Scotophilus	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Scotophilus nigrita.
African buffalo	Mammalia	Artiodactyla	Bovidae	Syncerus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Also in Mole National Park and Comoé National Park, Côte d’Ivoire.
African civet	Mammalia	Carnivora	Viverridae	Civettictis	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
African clawless otter	Mammalia	Carnivora	Mustelidae	Aonyx	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
African brush-tailed porcupine	Mammalia	Rodentia	Hystricidae	Atherurus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Atherurus africanus. Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
African giant squirrel	Mammalia	Rodentia	Sciuridae	Protoxerus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Listed as	Protoxerus stangeri.
African palm civet	Mammalia	Carnivora	Nandiniidae	Nandinia	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
African yellow bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Vespertilionidae	Scotophilus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Listed as	Scotophilus dinganii and Scotophilus viridis.
Allen’s wood mouse	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Hylomyscus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Listed as	Hylomyscus alleni.
Banana pipistrelle	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Vespertilionidae	Neoromicia	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Bate’s slit-faced bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Nycteridae	Nycteris	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Bay duiker	Mammalia	Artiodactyla	Bovidae	Cephalophus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Beatrix’s bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Vespertilionidae	Glauconycteris	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Listed as	Glauconycteris beatrix (NT) and Glauconycteris variegata (LC).
Beecroft’s flying squirrel	Mammalia	Rodentia	Anomaluridae	Anomalurus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Benito roundleaf bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Hipposideridae	Hipposideros	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Black duiker	Mammalia	Artiodactyla	Bovidae	Cephalophus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Buettikofer’s epauletted fruit bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Pteropodidae	Epomops	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Bushbuck	Mammalia	Artiodactyla	Bovidae	Tragelaphus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Also in Comoé National Park, Côte d’Ivoire.
Campbell’s monkey	Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecidae	Cercopithecus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cercopithecus campbelli. Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Cansdale’s swamp rat	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Malacomys	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Listed as	Malacomys cansdalei.
Climbing shrew	Mammalia	Soricomorpha	Soricidae	Suncus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Common kusimanse	Mammalia	Carnivora	Herpestidae	Crossarchus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Crab-eating mongoose	Mammalia	Carnivora	Herpestidae	Herpestes	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Crested porcupine	Mammalia	Rodentia	Hystricidae	Hystrix	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hystrix cristata. Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Crosse’s shrew	Mammalia	Soricomorpha	Soricidae	Crocidura	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Cyclops roundleaf bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Hipposideridae	Hipposideros	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Defua rat	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Dephomys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Dephomys defua. Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Demidoff’s Dwarf Galago	Mammalia	Primates	Galagidae	Galagoides	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Dwarf free-tailed bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Molossidae	Mops	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Dwarf slit-faced bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Nycteridae	Nycteris	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Edward’s swamp rat	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Malacomys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Malacomys edwardsi. Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Egyptian mongoose	Mammalia	Carnivora	Herpestidae	Herpestes	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Fire-footed rope squirrel	Mammalia	Rodentia	Sciuridae	Funisciurus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Funisciurus pyrropus. Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Forest hog	Mammalia	Artiodactyla	Suidae	Hylochoerus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Franquet’s epauletted fruit bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Pteropodidae	Epomops	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Fraser’s musk shrew	Mammalia	Soricomorpha	Soricidae	Crocidura	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Gambian epauletted fruit bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Pteropodidae	Epomophorus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Gambian mongoose	Mammalia	Carnivora	Herpestidae	Mungos	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Gambian slit-faced bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Nycteridae	Nycteris	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Ghana mole-rat	Mammalia	Rodentia	Bathyergidae	Fukomys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Fukomys zechi.
Greater cane rat	Mammalia	Rodentia	Thryonomyidae	Thryonomys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Thryonomys swinderianus.
Green bush squirrel	Mammalia	Rodentia	Paraxerus	Paraxerus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Paraxerus poensis.
Green monkey	Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecidae	Chlorocebus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Chlorocebus sabaeus. Also found in Comoé National Park, Côte d’Ivoire.
Guinean gerbil	Mammalia	Rodentia	Gerbilliscus	Gerbilliscus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Gerbilliscus guineae.
Guinean grass rat	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Arvicanthis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Arvicanthis rufinus.
Hippopotamus	Mammalia	Artiodactyla	Hippopotamidae	Hippopotamus	Least Concern (LC)	Prominent inhabitants of waterways. Pygmy hippopotamus found in Ébrié Lagoon and Taï National Park, Côte d’Ivoire.
Johan’s spiny mouse	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Acomys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Acomys johannis.
Kemp’s gerbil	Mammalia	Rodentia	Gerbilliscus	Gerbilliscus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Gerbilliscus kempi.
Lesser spot-nosed monkey	Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecidae	Cercopithecus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cercopithecus petaurista. Also found in Comoé National Park, Côte d’Ivoire.
Mona monkey	Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecidae	Cercopithecus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cercopithecus mona. Also found in Comoé National Park, Côte d’Ivoire.
Moloney’s mimic bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Vespertilionidae	Mimetillus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Mimetillus moloneyi.
Natal multimammate mouse	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Mastomys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Mastomys natalensis.
Nut-colored yellow bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Vespertilionidae	Scotophilus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Scotophilus nux.
Olive baboon	Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecidae	Papio	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Papio anubis. Also found in Comoé National Park, Côte d’Ivoire.
Patas monkey	Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecidae	Erythrocebus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Erythrocebus patas.
Peters’s mouse	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Mus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Mus setulosus.
Red-legged sun squirrel	Mammalia	Rodentia	Sciuridae	Heliosciurus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Heliosciurus rufobrachium.
Rusty-bellied brush-furred rat	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Lophuromys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Lophuromys sikapusi.
Schlieffen’s bat	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Vespertilionidae	Nycticeinops	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Nycticeinops schlieffeni.
Slender-tailed squirrel	Mammalia	Rodentia	Sciuridae	Protoxerus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Protoxerus aubinnii.
Tantalus monkey	Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecidae	Chlorocebus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Chlorocebus tantalus.
Typical striped grass mouse	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Lemniscomys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Lemniscomys striatus.
West African shaggy rat	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Dasymys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Dasymys rufulus.
Western palm squirrel	Mammalia	Rodentia	Sciuridae	Epixerus	Data Deficient (DD)	Listed as Epixerus ebii.
Ghana rufous-nosed rat	Mammalia	Rodentia	Muridae	Oenomys	Data Deficient (DD)	Listed as Oenomys ornatus.
Red-cheeked rope squirrel	Mammalia	Rodentia	Sciuridae	Funisciurus	Data Deficient (DD)	Listed as Funisciurus leucogenys.
Kintampo rope squirrel	Mammalia	Rodentia	Sciuridae	Funisciurus	Data Deficient (DD)	Listed as Funisciurus substriatus.
Small sun squirrel	Mammalia	Rodentia	Sciuridae	Heliosciurus	Data Deficient (DD)	Listed as Heliosciurus punctatus.
Mouselike pipistrelle	Mammalia	Chiroptera	Vespertilionidae	Hypsugo	Data Deficient (DD)	Listed as Hypsugo musciculus.
Killer whale	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Orcinus	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Pygmy killer whale	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Feresa	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
False killer whale	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Pseudorca	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Short-beaked common dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Delphinus	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Long-beaked common dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Delphinus	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Atlantic humpback dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Sousa	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Fraser’s dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Lagenodelphis	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Pantropical spotted dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Stenella	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Clymene dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Stenella	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Striped dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Stenella	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Atlantic spotted dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Stenella	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Spinner dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Stenella	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Rough-toothed dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Steno	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Common bottlenose dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Tursiops	Least Concern (LC)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Short-finned pilot whale	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Globicephala	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Risso’s dolphin	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Grampus	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.
Melon-headed whale	Mammalia	Cetacea	Delphinidae	Peponocephala	Data Deficient (DD)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.

IV. Avian Fauna (Birds)

Overview of Bird Diversity in the Tano River Basin

The Tano River Basin and its surrounding forest ecosystems in Ghana represent a significant habitat for a rich diversity of avian species. Ghana as a whole is home to 666 bird species. Within the basin’s immediate vicinity, areas such as the Boin Tano Forest Reserve have been designated as Important Bird Areas, highlighting their importance for avian conservation. The Ankasa Resource Reserve, which is part of the broader Tano Basin ecological zone, records over 263 bird species, including rare and migratory birds, further emphasizing the region’s avian richness. The riverbanks themselves provide a haven for many diverse bird species, attracting birdwatchers and wildlife enthusiasts.  

Table 2: Bird Species List (Class: Aves)

This table presents a comprehensive list of bird species found within or associated with the Tano River Basin and its broader ecological context in Ghana, categorized by their IUCN conservation status.

Species (Common Name)	Order	Family	IUCN Status	Notes
Grey Parrot	Psittaciformes	Psittacidae	Endangered (EN)	Listed as Psittacus erithacus. Found in Sui Forest and Kakum National Park.
White-breasted Guineafowl	Galliformes	Numididae	Vulnerable (VU)	Listed as Agelastes meleagrides. Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve and Ankasa Resource Reserve.
Common Pochard	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Vulnerable (VU)	Listed as Aythya ferina.
European Turtle-Dove	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Vulnerable (VU)	Listed as Streptopelia turtur.
Yellow Weaver Bird	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	Vulnerable (VU)	Listed as Ploceous megarhrynchus. Only vulnerable species in a study of Tano-Offin Forest Reserve.
Ferruginous Duck	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Aythya nyroca.
Denham’s Bustard	Otidiformes	Otididae	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Neotis denhami.
Red-necked Nightjar	Caprimulgiformes	Caprimulgidae	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Caprimulgus ruficollis.
Rufous-winged Illadopsis	Passeriformes	Pellorneidae	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Illadopsis rufescens. Upper Guinea endemic.
Copper-tailed Starling	Passeriformes	Sturnidae	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Hylopsar cupreocauda. Upper Guinea endemic.
Crowned Eagle	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Stephanoaetus coronatus.
African Fish Eagle	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	Least Concern (LC)	Precision predators over Tsavo’s waters.
African Pygmy-Goose	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Nettapus auritus.
African Green-Pigeon	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Treron calvus.
African Emerald Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Chrysococcyx cupreus.
African Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cuculus gularis.
African Dwarf Kingfisher	Coraciiformes	Alcedinidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ispidina lecontei.
African Paradise Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Monarchidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
African Pied Hornbill	Bucerotiformes	Bucerotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Lophoceros fasciatus.
African Reed Warbler	Passeriformes	Acrocephalidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Ahanta Spurfowl	Galliformes	Phasianidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Pternistis ahantensis.
Akun Eagle-Owl	Strigiformes	Strigidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Afep Pigeon	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Columba unicincta.
Bates’s Swift	Apodiformes	Apodidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Apus batesi.
Black Bee-eater	Coraciiformes	Meropidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Merops gularis.
Black Coucal	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Centropus grillii.
Black Spinetail	Apodiformes	Apodidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Black-bellied Bustard	Otidiformes	Otididae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Lissotis melanogaster.
Black-bellied Seedcracker	Passeriformes	Estrildidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Black-billed Wood-Dove	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Turtur abyssinicus.
Black-capped Apalis	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Apalis pulchra.
Black-casqued Hornbill	Bucerotiformes	Bucerotidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Black-collared Lovebird	Psittaciformes	Psittaculidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Black-crowned Capuchin Babbler	Passeriformes	Leiothrichidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Black-headed Bee-eater	Coraciiformes	Meropidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Black-headed Rufous Warbler	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	Least Concern (LC)	Upper Guinea endemic.
Black-throated Coucal	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Centropus leucogaster.
Black-winged Oriole	Passeriformes	Oriolidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Oriolus nigripennis.
Blue Cuckooshrike	Passeriformes	Campephagidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Blue Malkoha	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ceuthmochares aereus.
Blue Quail	Galliformes	Phasianidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Synoicus adansonii.
Blue-headed Crested Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Monarchidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Trochocercus nitens.
Blue-headed Wood Dove	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Turtur brehmeri.
Blue-moustached Bee-eater	Coraciiformes	Meropidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Bronze-naped Pigeon	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Columba iriditorques.
Brown Nightjar	Caprimulgiformes	Caprimulgidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Veles binotatus.
Brown-cheeked Hornbill	Bucerotiformes	Bucerotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Upper Guinea endemic.
Brown-necked Parrot	Psittaciformes	Psittacidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Buff-spotted Flufftail	Gruiformes	Sarothruridae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Sarothrura elegans.
Buff-throated Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Chalcomitra adelberti.
Cassin’s Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Muscicapa cassini.
Cassin’s Honeybird	Piciformes	Indicatoridae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Cattle Egret	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	Least Concern (LC)	Most abundant in a bird survey of Tano-Offin Forest Reserve.
Chestnut-and-black Weaver	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse	Pterocliformes	Pteroclidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Pterocles exustus.
Chestnut-capped Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Stenostiridae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Erythrocercus mccallii.
Chestnut-winged Starling	Passeriformes	Sturnidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Chocolate-backed Kingfisher	Coraciiformes	Alcedinidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Halcyon badia.
Coqui Francolin	Galliformes	Phasianidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Campocolinus coqui.
Collared Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Collared Pratincole	Charadriiformes	Glareolidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Glareola pratincola.
Common Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cuculus canorus.
Common Quail	Galliformes	Phasianidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Coturnix coturnix.
Congo Serpent Eagle	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Crested Guineafowl	Galliformes	Numididae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Guttera pucherani. Western Crested Guineafowl (	Guttera verreauxi).
Crested Malimbe	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Malimbus malimbicus.
Cuckoo-finch	Passeriformes	Viduidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Dideric Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Chrysococcyx caprius.
Dusky Crested Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Monarchidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Dusky Long-tailed Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cercococcyx mechowi.
Dusky-blue Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Bradornis comitatus.
Egyptian Goose	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Alopochen aegyptiacus.
Egrets	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	Least Concern (LC)	General group.
Eurasian Wigeon	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Mareca penelope.
European Honey-buzzard	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Pernis apivorus.
Fanti Drongo	Passeriformes	Dicruridae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Fanti Saw-wing	Passeriformes	Hirundinidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Psalidoprocne obscura.
Fiery-breasted Bushshrike	Passeriformes	Malaconotidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Fiery-necked Nightjar	Caprimulgiformes	Caprimulgidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Caprimulgus pectoralis.
Finsch’s Rufous Thrush	Passeriformes	Turdidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Forest Robin	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Forest Scrub-Robin	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cercotrichas leucosticta.
Forest Wood Hoopoe	Bucerotiformes	Phoeniculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Phoeniculus castaneiceps.
Four-banded Sandgrouse	Pterocliformes	Pteroclidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Pterocles quadricinctus.
Fraser’s Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Deleornis fraseri.
Fraser’s Forest Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Fraseria ocreata.
Fulvous Whistling-Duck	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Dendrocygna bicolor.
Garganey	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Spatula querquedula.
Golden Greenbul	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Great Blue Turaco	Musophagiformes	Musophagidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Corythaeola cristata.
Great Spotted Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Clamator glandarius.
Green Hylia	Passeriformes	Hyliidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hylia prasina. Most abundant in Tano Offin Forest Reserve.
Green-headed Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Green-crested Touraco	Musophagiformes	Musophagidae	Least Concern (LC)	Most abundant in Tano Offin Forest Reserve.
Grey Hornbill	Bucerotiformes	Bucerotidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Grey-headed Bristlebill	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Grey-throated Rail	Gruiformes	Sarothruridae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Canirallus oculeus.
Grey-throated Tit-Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Myioparus griseigularis.
Guinea Turaco	Musophagiformes	Musophagidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Tauraco persa.
Hairy-breasted Barbet	Piciformes	Lybiidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Harlequin Quail	Galliformes	Phasianidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Coturnix delegorguei.
Hartlaub’s Duck	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Pteronetta hartlaubii.
Helmeted Guineafowl	Galliformes	Numididae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Numida meleagris.
Icterine Greenbul	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Phyllastrephus icterinus.
Jambandu Indigobird	Passeriformes	Viduidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Johanna’s Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Kemp’s Longbill	Passeriformes	Macrosphenidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Klaas’s Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Chrysococcyx klaas.
Knob-billed Duck	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Sarkidiornis melanotos.
Latham’s Francolin	Galliformes	Phasianidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Peliperdix lathami.
Laughing Dove	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Spilopelia senegalensis.
Levaillant’s Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Clamator levaillantii.
Little Green Woodpecker	Piciformes	Picidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Little Grey Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Muscicapa epulata.
Little Grey Greenbul	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Eurillas gracilis.
Long-tailed Hawk	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Urotriorchis macrourus.
Long-tailed Nightjar	Caprimulgiformes	Caprimulgidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Caprimulgus climacurus.
Maxwell’s Black Weaver	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ploceus albinucha.
Melancholy Woodpecker	Piciformes	Picidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Mourning Collared-Dove	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Streptopelia decipiens.
Namaqua Dove	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Oena capensis.
Narrow-tailed Starling	Passeriformes	Sturnidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Nkulengu Rail	Gruiformes	Sarothruridae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Himantornis haematopus.
Northern Pintail	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Anas acuta.
Northern Shoveler	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Spatula clypeata.
Olive Long-tailed Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cercococcyx olivinus.
Olive-bellied Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Olive-green Camaroptera	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Camaroptera chloronota.
Olivaceous Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Muscicapa olivascens.
Orange-breasted Waxbill	Passeriformes	Estrildidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Pale-breasted Illadopsis	Passeriformes	Pellorneidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Illadopsis rufipennis.
Pied Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Clamator jacobinus.
Plain Greenbul	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Eurillas curvirostris.
Plain Nightjar	Caprimulgiformes	Caprimulgidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Caprimulgus inornatus.
Plain-backed Pipit	Passeriformes	Motacillidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Preuss’s Weaver	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ploceus preussi.
Quailfinch Indigobird	Passeriformes	Viduidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Red-billed Helmetshrike	Passeriformes	Malaconotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Prionops caniceps.
Red-chested Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cuculus solitarius.
Red-chested Owlet	Strigiformes	Strigidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Glaucidium tephronotum.
Red-eyed Dove	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Streptopelia semitorquata.
Red-fronted Parrot	Psittaciformes	Psittacidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Poicephalus gulielmi.
Red-tailed Bristlebill	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Criniger calurus.
Red-thighed Sparrowhawk	Accipitriformes	Accipitridae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Accipiter erythropus.
Red-vented Malimbe	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Malimbus scutatus.
Reichenbach’s Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Anabathmis reichenbachii.
Rock Pigeon	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Columba livia.
Rock Pratincole	Charadriiformes	Glareolidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Glareola nuchalis.
Rufous-crowned Eremomela	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Eremomela badiceps.
Sabine’s Puffback	Passeriformes	Malaconotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Dryoscopus sabini.
Sabine’s Spinetail	Apodiformes	Apodidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Rhaphidura sabini.
Sandy Scops Owl	Strigiformes	Strigidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Senegal Coucal	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Centropus senegalensis.
Sharpe’s Apalis	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Apalis sharpii. Upper Guinea endemic.
Shining-blue Kingfisher	Coraciiformes	Alcedinidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Alcedo quadribrachys.
Singing Cisticola	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Small Buttonquail	Galliformes	Turnicidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Turnix sylvaticus.
Speckled Pigeon	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Columba guinea.
Spotted Greenbul	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Spur-winged Goose	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Plectropterus gambensis.
Square-tailed Sawwing	Passeriformes	Hirundinidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Psalidoprocne nitens.
Standard-winged Nightjar	Caprimulgiformes	Caprimulgidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Caprimulgus longipennis.
Stone Partridge	Galliformes	Phasianidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ptilopachus petrosus.
Striated Heron	Pelecaniformes	Ardeidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Butorides striata.
Superb Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Swamp Nightjar	Caprimulgiformes	Caprimulgidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Caprimulgus natalensis.
Swamp Palm Bulbul	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Thescelocichla leucopleura.
Temminck’s Courser	Charadriiformes	Glareolidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cursorius temminckii.
Thick-billed Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Pachycoccyx audeberti.
Thick-billed Weaver	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Tiny Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Ussher’s Flycatcher	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Muscicapa ussheri.
Variable Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Violet Turaco	Musophagiformes	Musophagidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Musophaga violacea.
Western Bearded Greenbul	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Criniger barbatus.
Western Nicator	Passeriformes	Nicatoridae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Nicator chloris.
Western Plantain-eater	Musophagiformes	Musophagidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Crinifer piscator.
Western Bronze-naped Pigeon	Columbiformes	Columbidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Columba iriditorques.
White-bellied Kingfisher	Coraciiformes	Alcedinidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Corythornis leucogaster.
White-faced Whistling-Duck	Anseriformes	Anatidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Dendrocygna viduata.
White-spotted Flufftail	Gruiformes	Sarothruridae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Sarothrura pulchra.
White-tailed Alethe	Passeriformes	Muscicapidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Neocossyphus poensis.
White-throated Greenbul	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Yellow-billed Turaco	Musophagiformes	Musophagidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Tauraco macrorhynchus.
Yellow-browed Camaroptera	Passeriformes	Cisticolidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Camaroptera superciliaris.
Yellow-chinned Sunbird	Passeriformes	Nectariniidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Anthreptes rectirostris.
Yellow-throated Cuckoo	Cuculiformes	Cuculidae	Least Concern (LC)	.
Yellow-throated Greenbul	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Atimastillas flavicollis.
Yellow-mantled Weaver	Passeriformes	Ploceidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ploceus tricolor.
Yellow-bearded Greenbul	Passeriformes	Pycnonotidae	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Criniger olivaceus. Upper Guinea endemic. Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.

The prevalence of certain bird species, particularly those well-adapted to forest environments such as the Yellow-whiskered Greenbul, Green Hylia, Green Pigeon, and Olive Sunbird, can serve as vital indicators of forest habitat health. For example, the Green Hylia and Green-crested Touraco were observed as the most abundant species in the Tano Offin Forest Reserve. A decline in the populations of these common forest-dwelling birds could signal broader ecosystem degradation resulting from human activities like logging, agricultural expansion, and mining. Conversely, the presence of adaptable species, such as the Cattle Egret, which can thrive in altered landscapes, may not provide as strong an indicator of pristine forest conditions. Therefore, monitoring the population trends of these “common” species offers valuable insights into the ongoing impact of human pressures on the Tano Basin’s ecosystems, guiding targeted conservation interventions.  

V. Reptilian Fauna

Overview of Reptile Diversity in the Tano River Basin

The Tano River Basin is home to a significant diversity of reptilian species, encompassing various crocodiles, lizards, and snakes. Among these, the West African slender-snouted crocodile stands out as a critically endangered inhabitant, highlighting the urgent conservation needs within the basin. Ghana, as a broader geographical context, has recorded 153 species of reptiles, indicating a rich herpetofaunal presence in the country’s ecosystems, including those within the Tano Basin.  

Table 3: Reptile Species List (Class: Reptilia)

This table provides a comprehensive list of reptilian species identified within or strongly associated with the Tano River Basin and its broader ecological context in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire, categorized by their IUCN conservation status.

Species (Common Name)	Order	Family	Genus	IUCN Status	Notes
West African slender-snouted crocodile	Crocodylia	Crocodylidae	Mecistops	Critically Endangered (CR)	Conservation efforts focused on this species due to habitat loss and pollution.
West African dwarf crocodile	Crocodylia	Crocodylidae	Osteolaemus	Vulnerable (VU)	Listed as Osteolaemus tetraspis.
Home’s hinge-back tortoise	Testudines	Testudinidae	Kinixys	Vulnerable (VU)	Listed as Kinixys homeana.
Nubian soft-shelled turtle	Testudines	Trionychidae	Cyclanorbis	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Cyclanorbis elegans.
Senegal soft-shelled turtle	Testudines	Trionychidae	Cyclanorbis	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Cyclanorbis senegalensis.
Lined Centipede-eater	Squamata	Atractaspididae	Aparallactus	Near Threatened (NT)	Listed as Aparallactus lineatus.
West African crocodile	Crocodylia	Crocodylidae	Crocodylus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Crocodylus suchus. Also known as Nile Crocodile.
Nile monitor	Squamata	Varanidae	Varanus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Varanus niloticus.
Savanna monitor	Squamata	Varanidae	Varanus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Varanus exanthematicus.
Ball python	Squamata	Pythonidae	Python	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Python regius.
African rock python	Squamata	Pythonidae	Python	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Python sebae.
Puff adder	Squamata	Viperidae	Bitis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Bitis arietans.
Gaboon adder	Squamata	Viperidae	Bitis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Bitis gabonica.
Rhinoceros viper	Squamata	Viperidae	Bitis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Bitis nasicornis.
Common agama	Squamata	Agamidae	Agama	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Agama agama.
Tropical House gecko	Squamata	Gekkonidae	Hemidactylus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hemidactylus mabouia.
Fire skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Lepidothyris	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Lepidothyris fernandi.
Senegal skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Trachylepis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Trachylepis affinis.
Speckle-lipped skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Trachylepis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Trachylepis maculilabris.
Western Bush Viper	Squamata	Viperidae	Atheris	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Atheris chlorechis.
Red-black Striped Snake	Squamata	Lamprophiidae	Bothrophthalmus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Bothrophthalmus lineatus.
Western Forest Skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Trachylepis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Trachylepis paucisquamis.
Cameroon Dwarf Gecko	Squamata	Gekkonidae	Lygodactylus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Lygodactylus conraui.
Western Sawtail Tree Lizards	Squamata	Lacertidae	Holaspis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Holaspis guentheri.
Gabon Bush Snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Philothamnus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Philothamnus heterodermus.
Forest Lesser File Snake	Squamata	Lamprophiidae	Gonionotophis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Gonionotophis klingi.
African Brown Water Snake	Squamata	Homalopsidae	Lycodonomorphus	Least Concern (LC)	.
Banded leaf-toed gecko	Squamata	Gekkonidae	Hemidactylus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hemidactylus fasciatus.
Brook’s house gecko	Squamata	Gekkonidae	Hemidactylus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hemidactylus angulatus.
Guinea leaf-toed gecko	Squamata	Gekkonidae	Hemidactylus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hemidactylus muriceus.
Fat-tail gecko	Squamata	Eublepharidae	Hemitheconyx	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hemitheconyx caudicinctus.
Yellow fan-fingered gecko	Squamata	Phyllodactylidae	Ptyodactylus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ptyodactylus hasselquistii.
Ragazzi’s fan-footed gecko	Squamata	Phyllodactylidae	Ptyodactylus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ptyodactylus ragazzii.
Rough-scaled plated lizard	Squamata	Gerrhosauridae	Gerrhosaurus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Gerrhosaurus major.
Chabanaud’s fringe-fingered lizard	Squamata	Lacertidae	Acanthodactylus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Acanthodactylus boueti.
Guinea fringe-fingered lizard	Squamata	Lacertidae	Acanthodactylus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Acanthodactylus guineensis.
Cope’s spinytail lizard	Squamata	Lacertidae	Gastropholis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Gastropholis echinata.
Thierry’s cylindrical skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Chalcides	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Chalcides thierryi.
Keeled water skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Cophoscincopus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cophoscincopus durus.
Cophoscincopus greeri	Squamata	Scincidae	Cophoscincopus	Least Concern (LC)	.
Cophoscincopus simulans	Squamata	Scincidae	Cophoscincopus	Least Concern (LC)	.
Lygosoma guineensis	Squamata	Scincidae	Lygosoma	Least Concern (LC)	.
Mochlus brevicaudus	Squamata	Scincidae	Mochlus	Least Concern (LC)	.
Togo lidless skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Panaspis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Panaspis togoensis.
Guinea skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Trachylepis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Trachylepis albilabris.
Trachylepis buettneri	Squamata	Scincidae	Trachylepis	Least Concern (LC)	.
Teita skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Trachylepis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Trachylepis perrotetii.
Tropical skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Trachylepis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Trachylepis polytropis.
African five-lined skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Trachylepis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Trachylepis quinquetaeniata.
Rodenburg’s skink	Squamata	Scincidae	Trachylepis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Trachylepis rodenburgi.
Ghana worm lizard	Squamata	Amphisbaenidae	Cynisca	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cynisca kraussi.
Coast worm lizard	Squamata	Amphisbaenidae	Cynisca	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cynisca leucura.
Cynisca muelleri	Squamata	Amphisbaenidae	Cynisca	Data Deficient (DD)	.
Cynisca williamsi	Squamata	Amphisbaenidae	Cynisca	Data Deficient (DD)	.
Calabar ground python	Squamata	Boidae	Calabaria	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Calabaria reinhardtii.
Muller’s sand boa	Squamata	Boidae	Eryx	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Eryx muelleri.
Crotaphopeltis hippocrepis	Squamata	Colubridae	Crotaphopeltis	Least Concern (LC)	.
White-lipped herald snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Crotaphopeltis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia.
Central African egg-eater	Squamata	Colubridae	Dasypeltis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Dasypeltis fasciata.
Common egg-eater	Squamata	Colubridae	Dasypeltis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Dasypeltis scabra.
Dipsadoboa duchesnii	Squamata	Colubridae	Dipsadoboa	Least Concern (LC)	.
Gunther’s green tree snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Dipsadoboa	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Dipsadoboa unicolor.
Black-lined green snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Hapsidophrys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hapsidophrys lineatus.
Emerald snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Hapsidophrys	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hapsidophrys smaragdina.
Collared marsh snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Natriciteres	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Natriciteres fuliginoides.
Olive marsh snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Natriciteres	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Natriciteres olivacea.
Variable marsh snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Natriciteres	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Natriciteres variegata.
Slender green snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Philothamnus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Philothamnus heterolepidotus.
Northern green bush snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Philothamnus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Philothamnus irregularis.
Spotted bush snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Philothamnus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Philothamnus semivariegatus.
Yellow-throated bold-eyed tree snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Thrasops	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Thrasops flavigularis.
Western black tree snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Thrasops	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Thrasops occidentalis.
Blanding’s tree snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Toxicodryas	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Toxicodryas blandingii.
Fischer’s cat snake	Squamata	Colubridae	Toxicodryas	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Toxicodryas pulverulenta.
Reticulated centipede-eater	Squamata	Atractaspididae	Aparallactus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Aparallactus lunulatus.
Western forest centipede-eater	Squamata	Atractaspididae	Aparallactus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Aparallactus modestus.
Slender burrowing asp	Squamata	Atractaspididae	Atractaspis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Atractaspis aterrima.
Fat burrowing asp	Squamata	Atractaspididae	Atractaspis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Atractaspis corpulenta.
Dahomey burrowing asp	Squamata	Atractaspididae	Atractaspis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Atractaspis dahomeyensis.
Variable burrowing asp	Squamata	Atractaspididae	Atractaspis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Atractaspis irregularis.
Leach’s wolf snake	Squamata	Lamprophiidae	Lycophidion	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Lycophidion irroratum.
Flat wolf snake	Squamata	Lamprophiidae	Lycophidion	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Lycophidion laterale.
Lycophidion nigromaculatum	Squamata	Lamprophiidae	Lycophidion	Least Concern (LC)	.
Lycophidion semicinctum	Squamata	Lamprophiidae	Lycophidion	Least Concern (LC)	.
Reinhardt’s snake-eater	Squamata	Lamprophiidae	Polemon	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Polemon acanthias.
Ivory Coast snake-eater	Squamata	Lamprophiidae	Polemon	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Polemon neuwiedi.
Prosymna greigerti	Squamata	Lamprophiidae	Prosymna	Least Concern (LC)	.
Ghana shovel-snout	Squamata	Lamprophiidae	Prosymna	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Prosymna meleagris.
Mali cobra	Squamata	Elapidae	Naja	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Naja katiensis.
Forest cobra	Squamata	Elapidae	Naja	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Naja melanoleuca.
Black-necked spitting cobra	Squamata	Elapidae	Naja	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Naja nigricollis.
Senegalese cobra	Squamata	Elapidae	Naja	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Naja senegalensis.
Forest night adder	Squamata	Viperidae	Causus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Causus lichtensteinii.
Spotted night adder	Squamata	Viperidae	Causus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Causus maculatus.
Common night adder	Squamata	Viperidae	Causus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Causus rhombeatus.
Common lined worm snake	Squamata	Typhlopidae	Afrotyphlops	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Afrotyphlops lineolatus.
Spotted blind snake	Squamata	Typhlopidae	Afrotyphlops	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Afrotyphlops punctatus.
Two-coloured blind snake	Squamata	Typhlopidae	Guinea	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Guinea bicolor.
Sundevall’s worm snake	Squamata	Typhlopidae	Guinea	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Guinea sundewalli.
Leatherback sea turtle	Testudines	Dermochelyidae	Dermochelys	Critically Endangered (CR)	Marine species, likely not Tano River Basin specific.

The conservation of the critically endangered West African slender-snouted crocodile in the Tano River Basin is significantly bolstered by the cultural beliefs of local communities. These communities hold a spiritual connection to the Tano River and its aquatic creatures, including crocodiles, which are revered as sacred and believed to be linked to their ancestors. This traditional belief system has historically provided a protective framework for these species, preventing their harvesting. This demonstrates that successful conservation initiatives in the Tano Basin can benefit immensely from a holistic approach that respects and integrates local cultural values, potentially rendering community-based conservation more sustainable and impactful than purely top-down, scientifically driven interventions.  

VI. Amphibian Fauna

Overview of Amphibian Diversity in the Tano River Basin

The Tano River Basin supports a diverse amphibian population, with species exhibiting adaptations to both aquatic and terrestrial environments, including arboreal (tree-dwelling) forms. The high humidity characteristic of the rainforest environment within the basin provides favorable conditions for amphibians, as their moist, semi-permeable skin is crucial for respiration. Ghana, in its entirety, has recorded 80 species of amphibians, indicating a substantial national amphibian diversity. Specific surveys, such as those conducted in the Boin Tano Forest Reserve, further detail the variety of amphibian species present within the Tano Basin’s ecological zones.  

Table 4: Amphibian Species List (Class: Amphibia)

This table provides a comprehensive list of amphibian species identified within or strongly associated with the Tano River Basin and its broader ecological context in Ghana, categorized by their IUCN conservation status.

Species (Common Name)	Order	Family	Genus	IUCN Status	Notes
Bobiri reed frog	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Hyperolius	Endangered (EN)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Ghana river frog	Anura	Petropedetidae	Phrynobatrachus	Endangered (EN)	.
Ivory Coast frog	Anura	Phrynobatrachidae	Phrynobatrachus	Endangered (EN)	.
Ivory Coast running frog	Anura	Ptychadenidae	Ptychadena	Endangered (EN)	.
Liberia River frog	Anura	Petropedetidae	Phrynobatrachus	Endangered (EN)	.
Big-eyed forest tree frog	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Leptopelis	Vulnerable (VU)	Characterized by light brown skin, bulging brown eyes, found close to streams.
African common toad	Anura	Bufonidae	Amietophrynus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Also known as	Sclerophrys regularis.
African foam-nest tree frog	Anura	Rhacophoridae	Chiromantis	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Listed as	Chiromantis rufescens.
Ahl’s River frog	Anura	Petropedetidae	Phrynobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Amietophrynus maculatus	Anura	Bufonidae	Amietophrynus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Arthroleptis variabilis	Anura	Arthroleptidae	Arthroleptis	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Aubria subsigillata	Anura	Pyxicephalidae	Aubria	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Boutry River frog	Anura	Petropedetidae	Phrynobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Broad-banded Grass Frog	Anura	Ptychadenidae	Ptychadena	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Brown Banana Frog	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Afrixalus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Cardioglossa leucomystax	Anura	Arthroleptidae	Cardioglossa	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Chabanaud’s River frog	Anura	Petropedetidae	Phrynobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Coast River Frog	Anura	Petropedetidae	Phrynobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Crowned bullfrog	Anura	Dicroglossidae	Hoplobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve. Also African Tiger Frog (	Hoplobatrachus occipitalis).
Dotted reed frog	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Hyperolius	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Geotrypetes seraphini	Gymnophiona	Dermophiidae	Geotrypetes	Least Concern (LC)	Found in Boin Tano Forest Reserve.
Tropical Clawed Frog	Anura	Pipidae	Xenopus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Xenopus tropicalis.
Wide-headed Night Frog	Anura	Arthroleptidae	Astylosternus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Astylosternus laticephalus.
Western White-lipped Frog	Anura	Ptychadenidae	Amnirana	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Amnirana occidentalis and Amnirana albolabris.
Guttural Puddle Frog	Anura	Phrynobatrachidae	Phrynobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Phrynobatrachus gutturosus.
Spotted Reed Frogs	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Hyperolius	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hyperolius guttulatus.
Bibron’s Grass Frogs	Anura	Ptychadenidae	Ptychadena	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ptychadena bibroni.
Striped Spiny Reed Frogs	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Afrixalus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Afrixalus dorsalis.
Phrynobatrachus plicatus	Anura	Phrynobatrachidae	Phrynobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	.
Hyperolius sylvaticus	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Hyperolius	Least Concern (LC)	.
Phlyctimantis boulengeri	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Phlyctimantis	Least Concern (LC)	.
Savanna Puddle Frogs	Anura	Phrynobatrachidae	Phrynobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Phrynobatrachus accraensis.
Guttural Toad	Anura	Bufonidae	Amietophrynus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Amietophrynus gutturalis.
Bocage’s Burrowing Tree Frog	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Leptopelis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Leptopelis bocagi.
Striped Leaf-Folding Frog	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Afrixalus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Afrixalus quadrivittatus.
Sharp Nosed Reed Frog	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Hyperolius	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hyperolius nausutus.
Common Reed Frog	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Hyperolius	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hyperolius glandicolor ferniquei.
Golden-backed Frog	Anura	Ptychadenidae	Amnirana	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Amnirana galamensis.
Senegal Kassina	Anura	Hyperoliidae	Kassina	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Kassina senegalensis.
Northern Foam-Nest Frog	Anura	Rhacophoridae	Chiromantis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Chiromantis petersi.
Eastern Groove-Crowned Bullfrog	Anura	Dicroglossidae	Hoplobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hoplobatrachus occipitalis.
Natal Puddle Frog	Anura	Petropedetidae	Phrynobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Phrynobatrachus natalensis.
Anchieta’s Ridged Frog	Anura	Ptychadenidae	Ptychadena	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ptychadena anchietae.
Boettger’s Dainty Frog	Anura	Phrynobatrachidae	Cacosternum	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Cacosternum boettgeri.
Mascarene Rocket Frog	Anura	Ptychadenidae	Ptychdena	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Ptychdena mascareniensis.
Marbled Snout Burrower	Anura	Hemisotidae	Hemisus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Hemisus marmoratus.
Red Banded Rubber Frog	Anura	Phrynomantidae	Phrynomantis	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Phrynomantis bifasciatus.
Lake Victoria Clawed Frog	Anura	Pipidae	Xenopus	Least Concern (LC)	Listed as Xenopus victorianus.
Phrynobatrachus latifrons	Anura	Phrynobatrachidae	Phrynobatrachus	Least Concern (LC)	.
Arthroleptis spp.	Anura	Arthroleptidae	Arthroleptis	Least Concern (LC)	.

Amphibian populations in the Tano Basin can serve as crucial bioindicators of water quality and overall ecosystem integrity. Amphibians are particularly sensitive to environmental changes due to their biphasic life cycle, which exposes them to both aquatic and terrestrial stressors, and their moist, semi-permeable skin facilitates the uptake of chemicals. They are also highly susceptible to acidification and metal contaminants. Given the significant pollution from illegal gold mining and pesticide residues reported in the Tano Basin , monitoring amphibian health and diversity becomes an essential tool. Declines or abnormalities within amphibian communities, especially among sensitive species, can provide early warnings of increased pollution levels from industrial and agricultural runoff, thereby guiding timely environmental interventions.  

VII. Ichthyofauna (Fish)

Overview of Fish Diversity in the Tano River Basin

The Tano River Basin is a key component of Ghana’s freshwater fish diversity. Ghana’s freshwater fish fauna is considerable, comprising 28 families, 73 genera, and 157 species, with the Tano River Basin recognized as a major inland water system supporting this ichthyofauna. Specific studies within the Tano River have identified six fish families and a total of six species, indicating a localized but significant aquatic community. The basin’s unique ecological characteristics contribute to the presence of several endemic fish species, further emphasizing its importance for aquatic biodiversity.  

Table 5: Fish Species List (Class: Actinopterygii, Elasmobranchii)

This table provides a comprehensive list of fish species identified within or strongly associated with the Tano River Basin and its broader ecological context in Ghana, categorized by their endemicity, commonality, and IUCN conservation status.

Species (Common Name)	Family	Endemic/Common/Status	Notes
Tilapia busumana	Cichlidae	Endemic (LC)	Native to Tano River Basin in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire.
Barbus subinensis	Cyprinidae	Endemic	Endemic to freshwater systems of Ghana.
Irvinea voltae	Schilbeidae	Endemic	Endemic to freshwater systems of Ghana.
Chrysichthys walkeri	Claroteidae	Endemic	Endemic to freshwater systems of Ghana.
Synodontis arnoulti	Mochokidae	Endemic	Endemic to freshwater systems of Ghana.
Synodontis macrophthalmus	Mochokidae	Endemic	Endemic to freshwater systems of Ghana.
Synodontis velifer	Mochokidae	Endemic	Endemic to freshwater systems of Ghana.
Limbochromis robertsi	Cichlidae	Endemic	Endemic to freshwater systems of Ghana.
Steatocranus irvinea	Cichlidae	Endemic	Endemic to freshwater systems of Ghana.
Aethiomastacembelus praensis	Mastacembelidae	Endemic	Endemic to freshwater systems of Ghana.
Nile tilapia	Cichlidae	Common (LC)	Main farmed species in Ghana. Listed as Oreochromis niloticus.
African catfish	Clariidae	Common (LC)	Main farmed species in Ghana. Listed as Clarias gariepinus.
Reticulated knifefish	Notopteridae	Common (LC)	Listed as Papyrocranus afer. Occurs in the Tano River basin.
Ctenopoma kingsleyae	Anabantidae	Common	“Ekpoke”.
Sarotherodon galilaues	Cichlidae	Common	“Ekpoke”.
Sarotherodon melanotheron	Cichlidae	Common	“Ekpoke”.
Parachanna obscura	Channidae	Common	“Bile”.
Pomadasys jubelini	Haemulidae	Common	“Nzerma”.
Parapenaeus longirostris	Paenaediae	Common	“Senzeke”.
African long-finned tetra	Alestidae	Common (LC)	Listed as Bryconalestes longipinnis.
Spotted tilapia	Cichlidae	Common (LC)	Listed as Pelmatolapia mariae.
Polypterus endlicherii	Polypteridae	Common (LC)	.
Polypterus senegalus	Polypteridae	Common (LC)	.
Emerald green lampeye	Procatopodidae	Common (NE)	.
West African lungfish	Protopteridae	Common (LC)	Listed as Protopterus annectens.
Freshwater puffer fish	Tetraodontidae	Common (LC)	.
Rubricatochromis guttatus	Cichlidae	Common (NE)	.
Mormyrus rume	Mormyridae	Other Notable	Mentioned in a study on heavy metal concentrations in fish from Tano River.
Largemouth bass	Centrarchidae	Other Notable	Listed as Micropterus salmoides.
Bluegill	Centrarchidae	Other Notable	Listed as Lepomis macrochirus.
Common shiner	Cyprinidae	Other Notable	Listed as Luxilus cornutus.
Black crappie	Centrarchidae	Other Notable	Listed as Pomoxis nigromaculatus.
White crappie	Centrarchidae	Other Notable	Listed as Pomoxis annularis.
Channel catfish	Ictaluridae	Other Notable	Listed as Ictalurus punctatus.
Black Redhorse	Catostomidae	Other Notable	.
Hornyhead chub	Cyprinidae	Other Notable	Listed as Nocomis biguttatus.
Southern redbelly dace	Cyprinidae	Other Notable	Listed as Chrosomus erythrogaster.
Blacknose darter	Percidae	Other Notable	Listed as Etheostoma duryi.
Smallmouth bass	Centrarchidae	Other Notable	.
Heterotis niloticus	Osteoglossidae	Other Notable	.
Heterobranchus longifilis	Clariidae	Other Notable	.
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus	Claroteidae	Other Notable	.
Lates niloticus	Centropomidae	Other Notable	.
Ctenopoma petherici	Anabantidae	Other Notable	.
Dalophis boulengeri	Ophichthidae	Other Notable	.
Caranx fischeri	Carangidae	Other Notable	.
Trachinotus teraia	Carangidae	Other Notable	.
Alestes baremoze	Alestidae	Other Notable	.
Alestes dentex	Alestidae	Other Notable	.
Brachyalestes imberi	Alestidae	Other Notable	.
Brachyalestes nurse	Alestidae	Other Notable	.
Brycinus brevis	Alestidae	Other Notable	.
Brycinus leuciscus	Alestidae	Other Notable	.
Brycinus macrolepidotus	Alestidae	Other Notable	.
Citharinus citharus	Citharinidae	Other Notable	.
Citharinus eburneensis	Citharinidae	Other Notable	.
Citharinus latus	Citharinidae	Other Notable	.
Distichodus brevipinnis	Distichodontidae	Other Notable	.
Distichodus engycephalus	Distichodontidae	Other Notable	.
Distichodus rostratus	Distichodontidae	Other Notable	.
African pike	Hepsetidae	Other Notable	Listed as Hepsetus odoe.
Tiger-fish	Alestidae	Other Notable	Listed as Hydrocynus brevis.
Elongate tigerfish	Alestidae	Other Notable	Listed as Hydrocynus forskahlii.
Tiger fish	Alestidae	Other Notable	Listed as Hydrocynus vittatus.
Micralestes elongatus	Alestidae	Other Notable	.
Paradistichodus dimidiatus	Distichodontidae	Other Notable	.
Rhabdalestes septentrionalis	Alestidae	Other Notable	.
Chromidotilapia guntheri	Cichlidae	Other Notable	.
Coptodon dageti	Cichlidae	Other Notable	.
Coptodon discolor	Cichlidae	Other Notable	.
Coptodon guineensis	Cichlidae	Other Notable	.
Redbelly tilapia	Cichlidae	Other Notable	Listed as Coptodon zillii.
Banded jewelfish	Cichlidae	Other Notable	Listed as Hemichromis fasciatus.
Longfin tilapia	Cichlidae	Other Notable	Listed as Oreochromis macrochir.
Paragobiocichla irvinei	Cichlidae	Other Notable	.
Mango tilapia	Cichlidae	Other Notable	Listed as Sarotherodon galilaeus.
Blackchin tilapia	Cichlidae	Other Notable	Listed as Sarotherodon melanotheron.
Thysochromis ansorgii	Cichlidae	Other Notable	.
Tilapia pra	Cichlidae	Other Notable	.
African carp	Cyprinidae	Other Notable	Listed as Labeo coubie.
African carp	Cyprinidae	Other Notable	Listed as Labeo parvus.
African carp	Cyprinidae	Other Notable	Listed as Labeo senegalensis.
Labeobarbus lagensis	Cyprinidae	Other Notable	.

The presence of heavy metal contamination in fish species from the Tano River, including Mormyrus rume and Oreochromis niloticus, raises significant concerns regarding human health. Studies have shown that concentrations of cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), and mercury (Hg) in these fish can exceed acceptable levels, posing carcinogenic risks to consumers. This contamination is directly linked to widespread illegal gold mining activities within the Tano Basin, which contribute substantially to water pollution. The fact that residents in areas like Tanoso are advised not to consume fish from the Tano River corroborates the local awareness of this contamination and highlights a direct public health crisis for communities reliant on the river for food. This situation necessitates urgent intervention to curb mining pollution and implement robust food safety monitoring programs to protect human populations.  

VIII. Invertebrate Fauna

Overview of Invertebrate Diversity in the Tano River Basin

While comprehensive species lists for invertebrates in the Tano River Basin are less extensively documented compared to vertebrates, available information indicates the presence of various aquatic macroinvertebrates and highlights the impact of invasive species. For instance, the Ankasa Resource Reserve, ecologically connected to the Tano Basin, has recorded over 600 species of butterflies, suggesting a rich terrestrial invertebrate diversity. Aquatic macroinvertebrates, though often overlooked, play a critical role in the riverine food web and serve as important indicators of water quality.  

Table 6: Notable Invertebrate Species/Groups

This table outlines notable invertebrate groups and specific species mentioned in relation to the Tano River Basin and broader Ghanaian aquatic ecosystems.

Phylum	Class	Order	Family	Genus/Species (Common Name)	Notes
Arthropoda	Insecta	Diptera	Athericidae	Atherix	True Flies.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Diptera	Blephariceridae	Blepharicera	True Flies.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Diptera	Ceratopogonidae	Probezzia	True Flies.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Diptera	Chironomidae	Chironomidae (Midges)	Common in Ghanaian river studies; resistant/resilient taxa.	Polypedilum fuscipenne is a specific genus/species.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Coleoptera	Dryopidae	Helichus	Adult Beetles.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Coleoptera	Dytiscidae	Agabus, Copelatus	Adult and Larval Beetles.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Coleoptera	Elmidae	Ancyronyx variegatus, Dubiraphia, Macronychus glabratus, Microcylloepus, Optioservus, Stenelmis	Adult and Larval Beetles.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Coleoptera	Gyrinidae	Dineutus, Gyrinus	Adult and Larval Beetles.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Coleoptera	Haliplidae	Peltodytes	Adult and Larval Beetles.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Coleoptera	Hydrophilidae	Berosus, Tropisternus	Adult and Larval Beetles.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Coleoptera	Psephenidae	Psephenus	Larval Beetles.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Coleoptera	Ptilodactylidae	Anchytarsus	Larval Beetles.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Ephemeroptera	Baetidae	Centroptilum sp., Centroptiloides sp.	Mayflies; common in Ghanaian river studies; sensitive taxa.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Ephemeroptera	Leptophlebiidae	Leptophlebiidae (Mayflies)	Sensitive taxa.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Hemiptera	Mesoveliidae	Mesoveliidae (True Bugs)	Common in Ghanaian river studies.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Hemiptera	Veliidae	Veliidae (True Bugs)	Common in Ghanaian river studies.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Odonata	Libellulidae	Libellulidae (Dragonflies/Damselflies)	Common in Ghanaian river studies; sensitive taxa.	Phaon iridipennis is a specific species.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Plecoptera	Perlidae	Perlidae (Stoneflies)	Sensitive taxa.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Trichoptera	Conoesucidae	Pycnocentrodes, Beraeoptera, Confluens, Olinga	Caddisflies.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Trichoptera	Hydroptilidae	Oxyethira, Paroxythira	Caddisflies.
Arthropoda	Insecta	Trichoptera	Philopotamidae	Philopotamidae (Caddisflies)	Common in Ghanaian river studies; sensitive taxa.
Arthropoda	Collembola	Poduromorpha	Poduridae	Podura (Semi-aquatic Springtails)	.
Mollusca	Gastropoda	Basommatophora	Lymnaeidae	Lymnaea glabra (Snail)	Dominant in polluted sites of Volta River, indicative of pollution.
Mollusca	Gastropoda	Basommatophora	Physidae	Physa sp. (Snail)	Positively correlated with nitrate concentration and pH.
Annelida	Hirudinea	Rhynchobdellida	Glossiphoniidae	Placobdella (Leeches)	. Resistant/resilient taxa.
Invasive Species				Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes)	Absent until 2010 in Lower Volta, now occupies large areas of water surface in Tano River and Abby-Tano Lagoon. Inhibits transportation and creates mosquito breeding grounds.
Invasive Species				Kariba weed (Salvinia molesta)	Invaded Tano River and Abby-Tano Lagoon.
Invasive Species				Water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes)	Invaded Tano River and Abby-Tano Lagoon.
Invasive Species				Hippo grass (Vossia cuspidata)	Invaded Tano River and Abby-Tano Lagoon.

Aquatic macroinvertebrates serve as crucial bioindicators of water quality and overall aquatic ecosystem health. These bottom-dwelling organisms, including various insects, crustaceans, and worms, spend all or most of their lives in water and exhibit differing tolerances to pollution. The presence of diverse macroinvertebrate communities, particularly sensitive taxa like Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Plecoptera (stoneflies), and Trichoptera (caddisflies), indicates good water quality. Conversely, a dominance of pollution-tolerant species, such as certain Diptera (true flies) and snails like  

Lymnaea glabra, can signal environmental degradation, including organic contamination.  

The Tano River Basin faces a significant threat from invasive alien species, notably water hyacinth, which has rapidly spread and now occupies large areas of the Tano River and Abby-Tano Lagoon. This invasion reduces water velocity, creates suitable breeding grounds for mosquitoes (leading to increased malaria infestation in riparian communities), and obstructs transportation, impacting local livelihoods and children’s access to education. The presence of other invasive aquatic weeds like Kariba weed, water lettuce, and hippo grass further compounds these ecological and socio-economic challenges. The proliferation of these invasive species highlights a critical need for integrated management strategies to mitigate their adverse effects on the basin’s aquatic ecosystems and human well-being.  

IX. Conservation Status and Threats to Tano River Basin Wildlife

Synthesis of Conservation Status Across Taxa

The Tano River Basin is a critical biodiversity hotspot, hosting a wide array of animal species across various taxonomic groups. However, a significant proportion of its fauna faces considerable conservation challenges. Critically Endangered species such as Miss Waldron’s Red Colobus and the West African slender-snouted crocodile highlight the immediate threat of extinction for some of the basin’s most unique inhabitants. Numerous other species are classified as Endangered (e.g., Chimpanzee, Baer’s Hylomyscus, Diana monkey, Red colobus, Grey Parrot, Bobiri reed frog), Vulnerable (e.g., African bush elephant, Ursine colobus, Yellow-backed duiker, Big-eyed forest tree frog, White-breasted Guineafowl), or Near Threatened (e.g., African golden cat, African white-bellied pangolin, Bongo, Sooty mangabey, Olive colobus, Ferruginous Duck, Rufous-winged Illadopsis, Copper-tailed Starling). While many species are currently listed as Least Concern, the rapid rate of habitat degradation suggests that their status could change without effective conservation interventions. The presence of several endemic fish species, such as  

Barbus subinensis and Limbochromis robertsi, underscores the basin’s irreplaceable contribution to regional biodiversity and the urgency of protecting its unique aquatic ecosystems.  

Analysis of Major Threats

The primary threats to the Tano River Basin’s rich biodiversity are predominantly anthropogenic, leading to significant and rapid ecological changes.

• Habitat Degradation and Fragmentation:
  • Logging and Timber Harvesting: These activities have severely impacted the natural forest ecosystem, reaching a critical point. The conversion of dense and open forests to other land uses is a major historical land-use change.  
  • Extensive Agriculture: Widespread cocoa farming, often encroaching into forest reserves, directly endangers the basin’s vegetation. Farmers also clear riparian areas for irrigation, rapidly depleting crucial nesting habitats for species like the West African slender-snouted crocodile.  
  • Illegal Gold Mining (Galamsey): This is a pervasive activity across the basin, particularly in areas like Kenyase, Bibiani, and Sefwi-Surano. Mining operations contribute significantly to habitat degradation and fragmentation of forests along river edges.  
  • Reliance on Fuel Wood: Local populations’ dependence on fuel wood as a primary energy source further contributes to the loss of dense and open forests.  
• Pollution:
  • Heavy Metal Contamination: Illegal gold mining is a major source of water pollution, leading to elevated concentrations of heavy metals like mercury, arsenic, chromium, and cadmium in the Tano River. These contaminants accumulate in fish, posing significant carcinogenic risks to human consumers, as evidenced by studies showing levels exceeding acceptable limits. The local understanding of this threat is apparent, with residents in some areas avoiding fish consumption from the river. This direct link between mining pollution and public health necessitates urgent intervention to curb contamination and implement food safety measures.  
  • Plastic Waste: Carelessly disposed plastic waste is washed into the river during heavy rains, contributing to aquatic pollution and impacting wildlife.  
  • Pesticide Residues: Pollution due to pesticide residues from anthropogenic activities upstream has also been reported in the Tano Basin, further impacting aquatic ecosystems.  
• Invasive Species: The spread of invasive alien species, particularly aquatic plants like water hyacinth, Kariba weed, water lettuce, and hippo grass, poses a significant threat to the basin’s ecological and economic well-being. Water hyacinth, for instance, reduces water flow, creates breeding grounds for mosquitoes (increasing malaria incidence), and obstructs transportation, severely impacting local communities.  

Current Conservation Efforts and Community Engagement

Despite the extensive threats, conservation efforts are underway within the Tano River Basin, often emphasizing community involvement. The conservation of the critically endangered West African slender-snouted crocodile serves as a prime example. Organizations like the Threatened Species Conservation Alliance work directly with local communities along the Tano River to protect these crocodiles. This approach leverages the spiritual connection many communities have with the river and its aquatic creatures, which are considered sacred and linked to their ancestors. This traditional belief system, when combined with modern conservation education and awareness campaigns, has proven effective in gaining community support for protecting not only crocodiles but all aquatic life.  

Initial conservation work has focused on identifying crocodile populations and addressing specific threats like habitat pollution and disturbance. Future plans include rehabilitating degraded nesting habitats through replanting cleared forest areas along the riverbanks, conducting awareness campaigns to improve sanitation, and training local volunteers to enhance on-the-ground conservation efforts. The long-term vision includes establishing community-based protected areas for wildlife and generating income through ecotourism, where visitors could pay to observe crocodiles, thereby boosting the local economy and providing sustainable livelihoods. This model underscores the potential for integrating local socio-economic development with biodiversity conservation.  

X. Conclusion and Recommendations

The Tano River Basin stands as a testament to rich tropical biodiversity, supporting a complex web of life across its terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. From iconic forest elephants to a multitude of endemic fish and critically endangered primates and reptiles, the basin’s faunal diversity is immense and globally significant. However, this natural heritage is under severe and escalating threat from human-induced pressures, primarily driven by unsustainable land use practices, pervasive pollution from illegal mining and waste, and the ecological disruption caused by invasive species. The observed links between deforestation and aquatic degradation, and between heavy metal contamination in fish and human health risks, highlight the profound and interconnected challenges facing the basin.

The existing conservation initiatives, particularly those rooted in community engagement and leveraging traditional ecological knowledge, offer a promising pathway forward. The success in protecting species like the West African slender-snouted crocodile demonstrates that integrating local cultural values with scientific conservation strategies can yield more sustainable and impactful outcomes.

To safeguard the Tano River Basin’s invaluable biodiversity and ensure the well-being of its human communities, the following recommendations are put forth:

1. Strengthen and Expand Protected Area Management: Enhance the effectiveness of existing forest reserves (e.g., Boin Tano, Ankasa Resource Reserve) within the basin through increased enforcement against illegal logging, farming encroachment, and mining. Explore opportunities for establishing new community-based protected areas, particularly in critical riparian zones and forest fragments.
2. Combat Illegal Mining and Pollution: Implement stringent measures to curtail illegal gold mining operations throughout the basin. This includes enhanced monitoring, law enforcement, and the promotion of alternative, sustainable livelihoods for affected communities. Develop and implement comprehensive waste management programs to reduce plastic pollution in the river system.
3. Promote Sustainable Land Use Practices: Support and incentivize sustainable agricultural practices, particularly in cocoa farming, that minimize forest conversion and chemical runoff. Encourage agroforestry and riparian buffer zone restoration to protect riverbanks and water quality.
4. Invest in Biodiversity Monitoring and Research: Conduct regular, comprehensive biodiversity surveys across all taxonomic groups, with a particular focus on amphibians and aquatic macroinvertebrates as bioindicators of ecosystem health. Systematically monitor the populations of threatened and endemic species to track conservation progress and adapt management strategies.
5. Integrate Traditional Knowledge into Conservation: Foster collaborative conservation programs that actively involve local communities and incorporate their traditional ecological knowledge and spiritual connections to natural resources. This approach can build stronger local ownership and more effective, culturally appropriate conservation solutions.
6. Manage Invasive Species: Develop and implement targeted management plans for invasive alien species, especially water hyacinth and other aquatic weeds, to restore ecological balance and mitigate their socio-economic impacts.
7. Public Health and Food Safety Initiatives: Conduct regular monitoring of heavy metal concentrations in fish and water, and disseminate this information transparently to local communities. Implement public health campaigns to raise awareness about the risks of consuming contaminated fish and provide safe alternatives where necessary.
8. Develop Ecotourism Opportunities: Explore and develop community-based ecotourism initiatives focused on wildlife viewing (e.g., crocodile watching, birdwatching) to generate sustainable income for local communities, providing economic incentives for conservation and reducing reliance on extractive activities.

By adopting a multi-faceted and integrated approach that addresses ecological threats, promotes sustainable development, and empowers local communities, the Tano River Basin can continue to thrive as a vital ecological asset for both Ghana and the global community.